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Framing Effects Memory and Illusions Information Processing Prospect Theory Fuzzy-Trace

Consistent framing effects have been demonstrated with respect to intentions in hypothetical situations, but not actual behaviour. When investigations of real-life behaviour have been studied, effects are either severely diminished or they are eliminated. Most of the effects that do occur are considered by the investigators to be mild to moderate in size. The relationship between intentions (hypothetical scenarios) and behaviour still remain unclear.

Prospect theory lacks the interpretation of why framing effects occur. I do not have confidence that we could use Prospect theory to predict an outcome of framing effects. Although framing effects appear to exist, but vary, across situational tasks, they do not exist as strongly as they did in the Asian disease problem. However, results indicated that the overall framing effect between conditions is only moderate in size, and differences of these effects vary considerably across designs and situational tasks (Kuhberger, 1998; Levin et. al., 1988; Reyna & Brainerd, 1995). Several investigators have argued that the classical framing effects (bi-directional or standard) occur only when ambiguity about a choice problem is high, which demonstrates that interfering variables such as amount of information about a problem should be investigated. This investigation would lead researchers back to theories of information processing and the correlation between the input/output of data which is the amount of transmitted data.

Fuzzy-trace theory appears to provide some interesting points about how individuals process information and how memory works during the decision-making process. Reyna and Brainerd (1991) differ from traditional theories of information processing in that they argue we move from a numerical perspective to an intuitionist perspective as we age. This is the opposite from traditional theories. In their analysis of framing effects, they argue that there are different levels of processing (hierarchy of gist) that occur in risky decision making problems. They believed that reasoning usually prefers to operate on memories that are near the fuzzy end of the continuum (nominal or categorical level). Reyna and Brainerd believed that a decision such as the Asian disease problem had to be made at this nominal level, which is the lowest level in the hierarchy of gist. They argued that it is due to Tversky and Kahneman providing too much information to the respondent that cannot be computed at this lower level, that resulted in framing effects. I think I agree with Kuhberger who suggested that reasoning would have to occur at a much higher level of the hierarchy, closer to the ratio or interval level. I do not agree that providing respondents with options such as, "more versus less" would yield a clear prediction of how each respondent would answer. The word "more" does not have the same definition for one respondent as it may for all respondents.

The research on framing effects will continue. Even if these theories have not yet provided a clear understanding of framing effects they have provided much information that we can add to our knowledge base on how humans process information. Amount of information is key, as well as the type of response options provided, and the level of emotional involvement or moral judgment considered to exist. We should remember Lewis' story of Alice in Wonderland and how similar scenarios may lead to different processing of information, and may affect how we interpret a problem as well as make a decision. If we are not provided with enough information or if the information is ambiguous, like when Alice was talking with the Caterpillar, we are not able to make accurate decisions or provide appropriate responses to the problem at hand.

If a reversal of preference occurs with charges in data format then additional data, discussion or analysis are probably needed. What I plan to do on this web site in the future, but ran out of time was to conduct a meta-analysis on the effect sizes of the framing effects from a variety of the studies mentioned throughout this web site. I believe that the results would provide a strong theme of evidence for what the overall effect sizes do yield across situational tasks and across populations. My prediction is that these effect sizes would be small and even eliminated if additional moderator and mediating variables are explored.